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Mary never saw Philip again after he returned to Spain. The English were always distrustful of foreign males and their Continental ways, therefore their xenophobic fears were widely shared inside the country. Catherine died in childbirth just a few months later, on September 5, , and Thomas was free to marry the year-old princess.

However, Thomas was quickly embroiled in a power struggle with his brother, Lord Protector Edward Seymour, and on March 20, , he was condemned to death on charges of treason. No evidence was produced against Elizabeth and her servants regarding their participation with Thomas Seymour and his purported plan to marry her.

Elizabeth saw this early brush with love and flirtation, as well as all the perils that came with it, as a warning sign that marriage could lead to self-destruction. Elizabeth I and Robert Dudley Of course, Elizabeth I had multiple opportunities to marry during her reign, the most notable of which was to her great favorite, Robert Dudley. As a result, the Scots revolted, forcing Mary to abdicate and hand over the throne to her month-old son, now James VI.

Elizabeth appointed Dudley as master of the horse within days after her accession, a position that guaranteed virtually daily contact. Their close relationship remained in the years that followed, but any hopes of a future marriage were abandoned. Elizabeth I in her coronation robes, patterned with Tudor roses and trimmed with ermine, painted c. Anjou was a Catholic in his twenties who was generally suspected of being a transvestite, or what we now call a crossdresser.

A rare portrait of Elizabeth prior to her accession, attributed to William Scrots. It was painted for her father c. He had continued to write love letters to the queen since his previous visit, in which he conveyed his wishes.

She then gave him her ring and kissed him on the lips. Elizabeth, on the other hand, had second thoughts overnight and stated the following day that she would not marry Anjou. Despite their age difference, the nature of their connection was once again questioned. The Pelican Portrait by Nicholas Hilliard. Elizabeth I, on the other hand, was never so overcome by emotion that she lost sight of political reality.

Their friendship lasted for over thirty years, until his death. In the spring of , it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend Robert Dudley. However, William Cecil , Nicholas Throckmorton , and some conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear.

In , he finally married Lettice Knollys , to whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred. After Elizabeth's own death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting. The queen called him her "frog", finding him "not so deformed" as she had been led to expect.

By , relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Members urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir, to prevent a civil war upon her death. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in Having previously promised to marry, she told an unruly House: I will never break the word of a prince spoken in public place, for my honour's sake.

And therefore I say again, I will marry as soon as I can conveniently, if God take not him away with whom I mind to marry, or myself, or else some other great let happen. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin, a goddess, or both, not as a normal woman. In , she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people".

Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled the nation along with her body. In , she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her own apartments. In , she was mysteriously bedridden with an illness that caused her body to swell. Mary boasted being "the nearest kinswoman she hath". Both proved unenthusiastic, [] and in Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley , who carried his own claim to the English throne.

The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February by conspirators almost certainly led by James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell.

Shortly afterwards, on 15 May , Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the marriage, writing to her: How could a worse choice be made for your honour than in such haste to marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself also in some part, though we trust in that behalf falsely.

The Scottish lords forced her to abdicate in favour of her son James VI , who had been born in June James was taken to Stirling Castle to be raised as a Protestant. Mary escaped from Loch Leven in but after another defeat fled across the border into England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch; but she and her council instead chose to play safe.

Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years. Mary was soon the focus for rebellion.

In there was a major Catholic rising in the North ; the goal was to free Mary, marry her to Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk , and put her on the English throne. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the Ridolfi Plot of which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to lose his head to the Babington Plot of , Elizabeth's spymaster Sir Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her.

By late , she had been persuaded to sanction Mary's trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot. The sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or not she wanted to delay the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians. The exception was the English occupation of Le Havre from October to June , which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port.

An element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the queen had little control. It also extended Spanish influence along the channel coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion. The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch of August , in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch. The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl of Leicester.

Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action. Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland, [] had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who wanted and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy".

Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands, [] which so far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester: We could never have imagined had we not seen it fall out in experience that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name.

Whereof fail you not, as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril. The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led to the failure of the campaign. A combination of miscalculation, [l] misfortune, and an attack of English fire ships on 29 July off Gravelines , which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast, defeated the Armada.

Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in one of her most famous speeches : My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm.

Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolising her international power. One of three known versions of the " Armada Portrait ". When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle. The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen.

But her Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how to defend himself, and to see his own weakness. Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory". The English fleet suffered a catastrophic defeat with 11,—15, killed, wounded or died of disease [] [] [] and 40 ships sunk or captured. It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports.

The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective. He withdrew in disarray in December , having lost half his troops. In , the campaign of John Norreys, who led 3, men to Brittany , was even more of a disaster. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders.

Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon , north-west France, in May The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January Henry abandoned the siege in April. Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous, [n] Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies.

Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England. During a revolt in Munster led by Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Desmond , in , an estimated 30, Irish people starved to death. The poet and colonist Edmund Spenser wrote that the victims "were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same".

To her frustration, [o] he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders. He was replaced by Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy , who took three years to defeat the rebels. O'Neill finally surrendered in , a few days after Elizabeth's death. Russia Elizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the Tsardom of Russia that were originally established by her half-brother, Edward VI.

She often wrote to Tsar Ivan the Terrible on amicable terms, though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance. Ivan even proposed to her once, and during his later reign, asked for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised. Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England.

He declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Sir Jerome Bowes , whose pomposity had been tolerated by Ivan. Elizabeth sent a new ambassador, Dr. Giles Fletcher, to demand from the regent Boris Godunov that he convince the Tsar to reconsider.

The negotiations failed, due to Fletcher addressing Feodor with two of his many titles omitted. Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing, half reproachful letters. She proposed an alliance, something which she had refused to do when offered one by Feodor's father, but was turned down.

Trade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the Barbary states during the rule of Elizabeth. He never returned to England. This territory was much larger than the present-day state of Virginia , extending from New England to the Carolinas. In , Raleigh returned to Virginia with a small group of people. They landed on Roanoke Island , off present-day North Carolina. After the failure of the first colony, Raleigh recruited another group and put John White in command.